PE A2 Level OCR Sports Psychology Module Definitions. A2 AQA PE - SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY REVISION. Sports Psychology Assignment help and essay writing service. revision materials for college students

Personality Types

- Type A - Impatient, intolerant & high stress
- Type B - Relaxed, tolerant & low personal stress
- Stable - Unchanged, constant and predictable
- Unstable - Changable, inconsistent & not predictable
- Introvert - high RAS
- Extrovert - low RAS (low arousal)

Personality Theories

1. Trait - Innate/genetic
2. Social learning theory - Learn personality from significant others
3. Interactionist approach - Combination - we are born with certain personality and social learning modifies personality

Components of Attitude

1. Belief (cognitive) - learnt from others
2. Emotion (affective) - reaction to sport or activity
3. Behaviour (behavioural) - how we act
- All have to be stable for stable attitude
- When one of the elements aren’t stable = Cognitive dissonance

Changing Attitudes

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Persuasive communication & effective when:
- Significant other is persuading
- Quality of message - accurate & clear
- Characteristics of those being persuaded

- Attitudes can be affected by social norms and culture
- Or cognitive dissonance

Types of Motivation (2)

Intrinsic and extrinsic

Arousal

1. Drive theory
2. Inverted U-theory
3. Catastrophe theory

Anxiety types

Cognitive (mind e.g. worry) & Somatic (body e.g. sweating)

Anxiety Theories

1. Trait anxiety - enduring/genetic on all situations
2. State anxiety - anxious in certain situation
3. Competitive trait anxiety - perception of competition as threatening

Aggression Theories

1. Instinct theory - Genetic/innate aggression
2. Social learning - Learnt off significant others
3. Frustration-aggressive - blockage of goal leads to frustration and the aggression (can lead to success and catharsis (release of frustration))
4. Aggressive cue - Aggression in response to certain stimulus

Social facilitation vs inhibition

Performer has greater ability with audience vs opposite
Affected by:
- Level of ability
- Personality
- Type of skill

Group forming

1. Forming - little agreement and guidance needed. Ppl. getting to know each other
2. Storming - members jostle for position in team
3. Norming - Roles are clear, and sense of commitment and unity
4. Performing - Common goal/aim proposed by leader

Ringlemann’s Effect

Increased group size = reduced quality of average performers, performance

Social loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when combining their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Team performance/productivity

Actual productivity = Potential - faulty process’s

Goal types

1. Outcome - end result target
2. Performance - individual’s performance e.g. new pb
3. Process - technique related/skill goals

SMART goal

Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Recorded
Time specific

Goal time scales

Micro
Meso
Macro

Wiener’s attribution model

Affected by self serving bias - ppl. often attribute success internally and failure externally

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Learned Helplessness

Belief that failure is inevitable & feeling of hopelessness
Can be specific or global

Mastery Orientation

Individual is motivated to become an “expert” and often attribute failure internally

Self-efficacy

Self-confidence in specific conditions

Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy

Depends on:
1. Performance accomplishments
2. Vicarious experiences
3. Verbal persaution
4. Emotional arousal

Effective leadership

1. Good communication
2. High motivation
3. Enthusiasm
4. Clear/common goal
5. Empathy
6. Being good at the sport
7. Charisma

Emergent vs Prescribed leaders

- Original team member and is already respected
- Leader that has been brought into the group

Leadership styles

1. Autocratic
2. Democratic
3. Laissez-faire

Leadership Theories

1. Trait
2. Social
3. Interactionist

Cognitive stress management

Positive thinking
2. Negative thought stopping
3. Rational thinking
4. Mental rehearsal
5. Imagery
6. Mindfulness
7. Goal setting
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Somatic stress management

1. Relaxation
2. Progressive muscular relaxation
3. Biofeedback
4. Centring
5. Breathing control

Feedback Type

- Positive
- Negative
- Knowledge of performance
- Knowledge or results

Feedback vs Reinforcement

- Feedback: Quality of skill/performance
- Reinforcement: Praise of enforcement with the use of emotions e.g. praise/removal of irritant

Personality

Psychological characteristics that make each person unique.

Interactionist theory

Behaviour occurs from the influence of inherited traits and learned experiences

Social learning theory and a -VE

All behaviour is learnt from environmental experiences.
-VE doesnt consdider influence of genetics

Conditions that support social learning

-Demonstator is a role model
-Role model is powerful and authorative
-Observer wants to conform to the norms and values of a new culture
-Both the same gender

Trait theory and a -VE

People are born with established personality characteristics
-VE doesnt consider the influence of environment

Narrow band theory

Girdano, Type A and Type B

Type A

Competative, work fast, strong desire to succeed, like control, prone to suffer from stress

Type B

Non-comp, work slow, low desire, doesnt like control, not prone to stress

Hollander

Psychological core, typical responses, role-related behaviour

Extrovert

Personality Type (Eysenck)
- outgoing, sociable
- aroused more slowly than introverts (low sensitive reticular activation system (RAS))

Introvert

Personality Type (Eysenck)
- tend to be shy and reserved
- prefer isolation from others
- become aroused more quickly than extroverts (high sensitive RAS)

Neurotic

Personality Type (Eysenck)
- extreme and unpredictable emotions (mood swings)
- experience high degrees of stress and recover slowly

Stable

Personality Type (Eysenck)
- predictable emotions
- tend not to experience intense stress and recover from stress quickly

Personality profiling

Identifies traits which can then be used by psychologists to recommend participation in sport

Critical evalutation of personality profiling

Research surroudning the relationship between personality and sporting behaviour in inconclusive

Limitations of personality profiling

Stereotype. Subjective. No evidence. No proven links. Modify behaviour for test. Lacks validity and reliability.

Origins of attitudes

Mainly formed through experiences

Socialisation

Involved in formation of attitudes. Interaction with others that may modify behaviour

Triadic model of attitude

Cognitive, attitude, behavioural

Congitive component

Beliefs and knowledge about the attitude object

Affective component

Feelings towards the attitude object

Behavioural component

Behaviour towards attitude object

Dissonance

An emotional confllict which can change an attitude

Critical evaluation of attitudes

Poor predictors of behaviour. Positive attitudes don’t mean commitment. Specific attitudes are better predictors of behaviour.

Aggression

Aim to harm the opponent, illegal

Channelled aggression

Aggresive play with in the rules and is directed at successfull completion of a skill rather than injuring another player

Causes of aggression

Offical making a poor decision
Belief opposition is cheating
Losing a game
Pressure
Hostile situation
Copying behaviour of others
Frustration
Previous ill-feeling
Influence of outside world

Instinct theory

Aggressive behaviour is inherited trait rather than a learned behaviour

-VE instinct theory

No evidence for aggression being biological. Suggests spontinuity when aggression is often planned. Studies suggest aggression can be learned

Frustration aggression hypothesis

Aggression results from a situation causing frustration

Catharsis

Release and therefore reduction in aggression and frustration

-VE frustration aggression

Not everyones frustration leads to aggression, individuals that do ^ don’t ALWAYS do it

Cue arousal theory

Developed in response to FAH
Suggests frustration is only a predisposition, environmental stimuli needed for actual aggression

Social learning

Aggression is learned and nurtured through environmental factors rather than inheritance

Cognitive aggression elimination

Mental or psychological processes eg Positive self talk/counting

Somatic aggression elimination

Physiological process e.g. biofeedback

Aggression on HABL

Inc arousal so dec concentration and impair perfomance, inc risk of injury, less motivated to cont.

Achievement motivation

Degree to which an individual is motivated to achieve success

High nach/Low naf

Approach challenges, take risks, persistance, success internal, failure external, failure is a route to success, like feeback and evaluation, mastery orientated

Approach behaviour

Describes behaviour that accepts challenges

Low nach/High naf

Avoid challenges, avoid risks, success external, failure internal, don’t like feedback or evaluation

Avoidance behaviour

Describes behaviour that rejects challenges

Attribution theory

Identifies reasons given to account for success and failure in sport

internal-stable

ability

internal-unstable

effort

external-stable

task difficulty

external-unstable

luck

Mastery orientation

The strong motive to succeed found in a high achiever
This person expects success but persists when experiences failure

Encouraging mastery orientation

In conf to inc self-belief, exercise prog, making particiaption a positive experience, verbal persuasion

Learned helplessness

The belief that failure is inevitable and that the individual has no control over the factors that cause failure

Attribution bias

The performer’s belief that reasons for success and failure never change

Attribution retraining

Changing the perfomers opinion of the causes of failure

Methods of retraining

Attributing failure to external, increase self-esteem and encourage mastery orientation, which facilitates a HABL, encourage apporach behaviour

Steiners model

Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes

Actual productivity

Actual performance at a given time

Potential productivity

Max capability of a group when cohesion is strong

Losses due to faulty processes

Things that go wrong and impair cohesion preventing the team from reaching their full potential

Group dynamics

The social processes operating within the group between individual members

Group cohesion

The tendancy of a group to stick together and main united in the persuit of its goals and objectives

Task cohesion

Relates to the way team members work with each other to complete a task succesfully

Social cohesion

Involves formation of personal relationships within the the group and that provide the individual with support and friendship

Social loafing

Decline in motivation that occurs in a group sitaution, causing players to reduce their effort levels: reduces cohesion

Reasons for social loafing

Team mates aren’t trying, feel their performance isn’t valued, task is too difficult, lack of confidence, negative experience

Ringlemann effect

Losses in coordination that occur as a result of a breakdown in teamwork

Exercise adherence

Adopting an exercise regime and persistinf with the activities

Goals setting benefits

Inc motivation, confidence, positive perception, reduced anxiety

Goal setting affects performance by

Directing attention, inc effort, persistence, motivation

Self-efficacy

Specific self-confidence arising from the perception of a person about their standard of ability in particular situatuibs and activites

SMARTER

Specific
Measurable
Accepted
Realistic
Time related
Exciting
Recorded

Performance goals

Based on judgement

Process goals

Based on improving technique

Product goals

Based on outcomes

Social faciltAtion

Prescence of others increase arousal and have a beneficial effect on performance

Social inhibition

Presence of others increase arousal and have a negative effect on performance

Managing social inhibition

Selective attention
Mental rehersal
Imagery
Positive self-talk
Confidence

Evaluation apprehension cause

Audience is present and the performer perceive the audience to be judging their performance

Evaluation apprehension effects

Impaired performance, inc anxiety, reduce confidence, diff to concentrate

Autocratic

Leader has authority and makes all of the decisions
Effective with novices and large groups

Democratic

Group is involved in decision making
Effective to elite and small groups and females

Laissez-faire

Passive and allows group memebers to get on with the task by themselves

Prescribed leader

Appointed by someone else such as a manager choosing a captain

Emergent leader

Emerge from the group such as a player becoming a player-manager
More effective as already have a level of respect

Trait theory leadership

Leaders are born with specific traits that predispose them to be good leaders, innate

Social learning theory leadership

Suggests all behaviour is learned through environmental influences

Interactionist theory leadership

Combo of social and trait
More realistic explanation

Chellandurais model

Leadership is influenced by situational factors, leadership characteristics and member characteristics

Attentional control

Ability of a performer to focus awareness onto important environmental cues during an activity

Cue utilisation

The process that facilitates maximum attentional control, allowing efficient performance to take place

Self-confidence

Refers to a consistent (and stable) degree of confidence that a person displays across a wide range of situations

Self-efficacy

Situation specific confidence

Bandura self efficacy

Performance accomplishments
Vicarious experiences
Verbal persuasion
Control of arousal

Vealey types of confidence

Trait - a genreal disposition to be confident in most sport specific situations
State- confidence in specific sporting situations

IZOF

Zones in which individuals perform best,
Makes athletes confident, relaxed and motivated. Described as peak flow

Anxiety

Negative emotional state that causes feelings of worry and nervousness

Cognitive anxiety management

Positive self talk
Imagery
Thought stopping

Somatic anxiety management

PMR
Biofeedback

Zone of Optimal Functioning

the unique level of arousal which allows performer to have maximum concentration and effort

Characteristics of the zone of optimal functioning

Movement being effortless
Select correct cues and make quick and accurate decisions
Does not always occur at midpoint of arousal
Occurs over a bandwidth of arousal

Attentional Narrowing

Not using perceptual field, important cues are missed
Focus on the goal and not a team mate in a better position

Attentional wastage

Concentration misdirected to irrelevant cues
Thinking about the crowd and referee

Peak Flow

Timing of movements and actions are perfect, ultimate intrinsic experience
Requires positive attitude, relaxed, confidence, etc.
More likely to occur correct somatic arousal and low cognitive arousal

Arousal

Energised state of readiness/activation

Types of Arousal

Cognitive- psychological changes
Somatic- physiological changes

Drive theory

Linear relationship between arousal and quality of performance
Adapted to arousal and dominant response
Does not explain autonomous failings
No account of different types of arousal

Inverted U theory

As arousal increases so does performance, but only up to an optimal level after which performance deteriorates
Need to consider, nature of the task, skill level and personality

Catastrophe theory

Increase in arousal will have positive effect on performance, over arousal causes a rapid deterioration
Can be recovered - if arousal drops slightly

Observation method

Record Individual behaviour- fidgeting, changes in speech, acts of aggression
Aspects of performance- accuracy, decision-making, speed of reaction
Repeated patterns noted
Requires several observers, know the performer.

Biofeedback

monitoring physiological responses to performance
Data collected- HR, sweating, respiratory rate, muscle response
Provides accurate data
Difficult to record during competition

Self-Report Questionnaires

Ease of administration, large numbers and cheap
Drawbacks- misinterpretation, lack of honesty, poor questions, answer options

Stress

the non-specific response of the body to any demand made on it

Eustress

Positive stress
Seek limits/adrenaline rush
Can lead to intrinsic satisfaction and boost confidence

Anxiety

Negative stress
- can lead to decreased performance

Types of Anxiety

Cognitive
Somatic
State (A-State)
Trait (A-Trait)
Competitive trait
Competitive State

Cognitive Anxiety

Psychological effects of stress
Apprehension, fear of failure, attentional narrowing

Somatic Anxiety

Physiological effects of stress
Sweating, increased HR, feeling of nausea

Trait Anxiety - (A-trait- )

General disposition of the individual to stress
(stable/inherited)

State Anxiety - (A-state)

Anxiety which occurs when performer is in a specific situation
Linked to mood. Both cognitive and somatic anxiety may be experienced

Competitive trait anxiety-

Perceive competitive situations as threatening
High trait more likely to suffer high state
May not be as anxious in training

Attitude

Positive or negative
Stable and enduring
Focused to a particular object/action
Evaluative, subjective or beliefs

Attitude object

focus of an individual’s attitude

Triadic model

Cognitive, Affective, Behavioural
Cognitive- reflects beliefs, knowledge, thoughts
Affective- emotional response of feelings
Behavioural- intended/actual behaviour

Persuasive communication

Status of messenger
Quality of the message
Strength of attitude
Situation/context of message delivery

Cognitive dissonance

Creating conflict with attitude
Cognitive- new information
Affective- different experience - positive
Behavioural- simplify skill allow success

Cognitive Methods of Stress Management

Imagery
Self Talk
Thought Stopping
Attentional Control

Imagery

create mental pictures
Calm atmosphere
Recreate kinaesthetic feeling of successful movement
Can be internal or external

Thought stopping

recognise when they are starting to worry
Use of action/key word to redirect to positive thoughts

Attentional control

ability to alter their perceptual field
Vary the amount and type of information the enters the body

Self-Talk

- developing positive thoughts about their performances
Aim to eradicate any negative thoughts

Somatic Stress Management techniques

Biofeedback
Progressive Muscle Relaxation
Reelaxation

Biofeedback- stress management

- measurement of physiological responses
Skin response, skin temperature, muscle tension

Relaxation - stress management

- muscles become less rigid-
Uses cognitive or somatic methods

Progressive Muscle Relaxation

- alternating sensations of tension and relaxation
Specific muscle groups targeted in succession
Gradually reduces tension throughout the body

Goal Setting

SMARTER
Outcome goal- judges performance
Performance goal- judged against own standards.
Process orientated goals- development of tactics or technique

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Behaviour is based upon environment and desire to succeed
Achievement motivation = desire to succeed - fear of failure

Need to Achieve (n.Ach)

Sense of pride, perseverance, welcome feedback
Confidence, attribute performance internally, prepared to take risks
Failure is a learning experience

Need to avoid failure (n.AF)

Avoid shame, worry about failure, avoid 50-50
Choose very easy or very hard tasks
Attribute performance externally, give up easily

Avoidance behaviour-

motivated to protect self-esteem and will avoid evaluation

Approach behaviour

- motivated to attempts challenging situation

Achievement Goal Theory

- achievement motivation will differ depending on reasons for participation and goals set.
Outcome Goal- judge performance against others
Task-orientated goal- performance judged against own standards

Developing Approach behaviour

Positive childhood experiences (pride, satisfaction, success)
Gradual increase of task difficulty
Improve self-efficacy / avoid learned helplessness
Use attributions correctly
encouragement

Personality- Trait theory

an innate, enduring characteristic, stable
Allow us to predict behaviour patterns

Hollander’s Interactionist model

Psychological core- the real you
Beliefs, values, attitudes
Typical responses- usual response to a situation
Often learned
Role-related behaviours- our behaviour based upon specific circumstanced
May act out of character

EPI

- Eysenk’s personality inventory
Extrovert need more arousal, Introvert-easily over aroused
Stable- calm, even tempered, reliable, controlled, Neurotic- moody, anxious, and restless.
Too simplistic, do not allow for situational factors, not accurate in terms of sport preference or success

Interactionist theories of Personality

- mixture of inherited traits and situation
B=f (PE)
Behaviour may change due to crowd, significant other, rivalry, importance of outcome

POMS

- profile of mood sates
Iceberg profile (vigour above) all the rest below average
Sceptical approach- questions link between personality and performance
Credulous approach- believes the link between personality and performance

SELF-EFFICACY

Degree of confidence when placed in a specific situation
Applies to team or individual
May generally have confident personality but may lack confidence in a specific situation
Self-efficacy may affect choice of activity, amount of effort and persistence
Self-efficacy is affected by past experiences,

factors affecting Self Efficacy

past experiences,
vicarious experience,
verbal persuasion
arousal

Methods to improve Self Efficacy

early success,
role models,
appropriate goal setting, performance goals,

positive feedback
Stress management, mental rehearsal,
correct use of attributions

AGGRESSION

BEHAVIOUR INTENDED TO HARM BY PHYSICAL OR VERBAL
It must happen, It must harm, It must be intentional

Types of Agression

Assertion-
Within the rules, complete task but side effect of inflicting harm
Channelled

Assertion

No intent, goal-directed, within rules, legitimate force
Caused by- nature of sport, rivalry, importance of event
High arousal, frustration, officiating, rewards

Instinct theory of aggression

nature approach
Innate, inherited and inevitable
Sport as a cathartic release
Displacement may occur
Evaluation- aggression is learned, may increase during sport, not always aggressive outside of sport

Frustration-aggression hypothesis-

Interactionist
Frustration always leads to aggression.
Goal is blocked-> frustration->aggressive act (catharsis if successful—> if punished leads to more frustration
Evaluation- not all frustration leads to aggression, not all aggression is caused by frustration

Cue Arousal theory

- frustration causes arousal to increase
But aggression only occur if cues are present e.g. signal, action or situation that acts as trigger

Social Learning Theory- aggression

- nurture approach
Vicarious experience- observe copy reinforced
Aggression reduced by- punishment, peer pressure, substitution, high quality officials, fair play awards

How to reduce the likelihood of aggression

Increase fitness,
performance goals,
lower arousal,
educate difference between aggression and assertion

Impact of Home Field advantage

More home supporters
Familiarity of surroundings
Due to audience support
As importance increases so too does expectations which may hinder performance

Proximity effect (how close the crowd are)
Home players may be more self-conscious

Social Facilitation

The effect that the presence of others has on performance

Social Inhibition

The negative effect on performance caused by the presence of others

Social Facilitation Theory (Zajonc)

linked to drive theory
Audience- those watching
Co-actors- performing same task but not in direct competition
Competitive co-actors- those in direct competition
Social reinforcers- direct influence e.g. coach
Experienced leads to social facilitation, inexperienced leads to social inhibition

Evaluation apprehension-

Anxiety caused when performer feels they are being judged
Leads to a deterioration in performance

Factors affecting social facilitation

Trait anxiety
Personality
Previous experience
Status of observers
Nature of audience (noise level)
Size of audience
Social inhibition avoided by-
Mental rehearsal
Training in front of others
Increase self-efficacy
Reduce importance of event
Stress management/relaxation

A group

Two or more people interacting,
Common/shared goal
Collective identity
Structured forms of communication

Stages of Group Formation

Forming-
Development of relationships within the group
Storming-
Some form of conflict as attempt to establish position/ roles/ status
Norming-
Rules /roles set structure established
Performing-
Players work together towards common goal. Roles are accepted
Cycle may be repeated when members arrive / leave the group

Attribution Theory _ definition

The perceived reasons for success or failure

Weiner’s Attribution theory

Locus of causality- the cause of the final outcome
Internal- ability + effort ,
External- Task difficulty + luck
Locus of stability- factors that may influence the final results
Stable - ability +task difficulty,
unstable - effort + luck
Success attributed internally = increased pride/motivation
Failure attributed internally = increased shame and loss of motivation
Controllability- affects moral judgement and reaction to other people
Praise if they tried hard despite result. More critical if failure due to laziness
Failure should be attributed externally

Self-serving bias

Correct use of attributions = self-esteem, motivation and avoids learned helplessness
Feelings experienced when they believe failure is inevitable even if success is possible

Strategies to avoid Learned Helplessness

Improve self-efficacy,
mental rehearsal,
performance goals,
use correct attributions / attribution retraining,
Attribution retraining- changing an individual’s perception of failure- I can improve if

Learned Helplessness

failure is inevitable in specific situations or against certain opponents

Cohesion

The extent to which a group works together

Task Cohesion-

Interaction of group members to achieve common goal

Social cohesion-

Interaction of group members and how they relate to each other
Cohesion affected by (antecedents)

Factors that affect cohesion

Environmental/situational factors
Size of group/time
Member characteristics-
Ability / motivation / satisfaction
Leadership style
Level of input on decision making
Stability of the group

Strategies to develop cohesion

Practice and training
Explanation of roles/ expectations
Individual and group goals
Individual responsibilities
Avoid social cliques
Identify social loafers

Authoritarian/ Autocratic

Leader dictates group actions- little or no member input
Task orientated, group works hard when present
Effective when - large numbers, quick decisions, limited time, complex or dangerous, clear goals

Democratic

Group involved in decision making but leader has final say.
When left alone group continues on task
Effective when - more experience performers, individual sports, limited facilities available
Younger / female players

Laissez-faire

Leaves group to make all decisions, adopts a passive role
Left alone group does very little work

Prescribed leader

- appointed by higher authority
E.g. captain appointed by manager

Emergent leader-

leader selected by team
Captain voted for by members

Qualities of a good leader

good communication skills
Interpersonal skills
Empathy
Approachable
Perceptual skills
Highly knowledgeable
Effective decision maker
Inspirational
Confident
Organised

Great man theory-

Trait theory applying to men only
Intelligent, self-confident, good looking

Social learning theory of leadership

nurture
Behavioural patterns are learnt through observing others and copying their leadership style
Makes no allowance of traits and natural personality

Fiedler’s contingency model

Effectiveness of leader is dependent upon personality traits and the situation
Task orientated - concentrates on efficiency, completing task as quickly as possible
Adopts autocratic approach
Desirable when time is limited, dangerous, large group
Relationship centred- concentrates on developing interpersonal relationships
adopts democratic
Effectiveness of each style depends on favourableness-
Relationship between leader and group
Leaders position of power / authority
Task structure
Task orientated in favourable / unfavourable conditions
Person orientated in moderately favourable
Favourable - good leader/group relationship, highly respected, group is highly able, highly motivated, good support , task is simple

Chelladurai’s multi-dimensional model

Before selecting style 3 characteristics must be considered
Situational- task difficulty, nature of group
Leader - personality, experience, skill level
Member - ability, motivation
Next stage considers leader behaviour
Required- depends upon situation and task
Actual- leader’s action
Preferred - what the group want

Pygmalion in the Classroom

Method: Told teachers certain “late bloomer” students were expected to achieve big academic gains
• In actuality, selected at random
Results: False information led teachers to hold higher expectations for targeted children and they did better than others
Conclusion: Expectations served as self-fulfilling prophecy by initiating a series of events that ultimately cause fulfillment of expectations

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

The coaches’ expectations or judgments of their athletes influence the athlete’s performance and behavior

Expectation-Performance Model

• Step 1: Coach develops an expectation for each athlete that predicts the level of performance/type of behavior that athlete will exhibit over the course of the year
• Step 2: These expectations influence the coach’s treatment of individual athletes
• Step 3: Coach’s treatment affects the athlete’s performance & rate of learning
• Step 4: Athlete’s behavior & performance conform to the coach’s expectations thus reinforcing coach’s expectations

Integrated Theory of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport

Social > psychological > motivation > consequences
Factors – mediators

Social Factors

• Success/Failure
• Competition/Cooperation
• Coaches Behavior

Psychological Mediators

• Perceptions of competence
• Perceptions of autonomy (self-determination)
• Relatedness

Consequences of Motivation

• Positive affect
• Positive behavior outcomes
• Improved cognition

Cognitive EvaluationTheory

-Sub-theory to the integrated theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

-Extrinsic rewards can affect intrinsic motivation (IM) in one of two ways
*Controlling aspect
(undermine IM)
*Informational aspect (enhance IM)

Controlling Aspect of Cognitive Evaluation Theory

• Athlete perceives that reason for participation is to earn reward
• Participation no longer due to love of the activity, but to promise of external reward
• Self-determination or autonomy is lost because athlete feels like “pawn” who is acted upon

Informational Aspect of Extrinsic Motivation

External rewards do not always result in loss of intrinsic motivation

Sport Applications: 3 Expectancy-Related Issues

1. Maturation, maturational rates, and the sport expectancy process
2. Sport stereotypes and the expectancy process
3. Coaches’ personal characteristics, their leadership styles, and the sport expectancy process

Maturation, Maturational Rates and the Sport Expectancy Process

• Late maturing male athletes can be falsely diagnosed by coaches as low-expectancy athletes
• The opposite is true of early maturing female athletes
o Expectancy-biased coaching means the athlete receives less instruction, playing time, or feedback
o Athletes might be phased out or cut based on coach’s expectancy-biased behavior
• Developmental vulnerability

Sport Stereotypes and the Expectancy Process - Youths

Ethnicity:
• May lead to positive or negative perceptions based on the individuals physical and mental capabilities
• When Pygmalion-prone coaches racially stereotype, it inhibits the proves of individual athletes or groups of athletes
Gender

• Stereotypes are based on perceptions that males and females differ in selected physical and/or psychological traits relevant to performance outcomes in sport
• Girls more likely to be treated as low-expectancy athletes

Sport Stereotypes and the Expectancy Process - College

-“Dumb-jock”
• Impacts athletes differently based on race, ethnicity, gender and sport type
• Research shows negative stereotypes can undermine academic, motor and sport performance
-College athletes who perceived that their coach regarded their academic ability positively were less susceptible to stereotyped threat perceptions

Coaches’ Personal Characteristics, Leadership Styles and Sport Expectancy

-What characteristics distinguish coaches who act in expectancy-biased ways from coaches who do not?
• Gender-biased or homophobic
• Entity perspective vs. Incremental perspective
-Leadership style may predict - perhaps prone if:
• Controlling interpersonal style
• Threaten athletes with punishment, use guilt-inducing methods of behavioral control, and allow athletes little or no involvement in any decision-making process

Behavioral Recommendations for Coach

1. Determine what source of information they use to form pre and early season expectations
2. Realize initial assessments of an athlete’s competence may be inaccurate and should be revised continuously
3. Keep a running count of the amount of time athlete spends in non-skill related activities
4. Design instructional activities or drills that provide all athletes with an opportunity to improve their skills
5. Respond to errors with corrective criticism
6. Emphasize skill improvement as a means of evaluating and reinforcing individual athletes
7. Interact frequently with all athletes on team to solicit information concerning perceptions
8. Create a mastery-oriented climate in team practices

The Information Processing Model

Memory Storage > Mental Operations > Memory Retrieval

Memory Systems

• Sensory Information Store
• Short-Term Memory (STM)
• Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Measuring Information

• Information conveyed measured in “bits”
• Number of bits is equal to number of questions that would have to be asked
• A baseball pitcher with total control over four pitches presents a greater information problem (more bits) than pitcher with total control over two pitches

Selective Attention

• The capability of humans to selectively attend to one stimulus to the exclusion of others
• For highly trained and skilled athletes, the process of selective attention is very efficient

Limited Information Processing Capacity

• Finite amount of “space” available for processing
• Tasks that require large amounts of processing space interfere with each other
• With practice, a task may be performed with little/no processing of space, allowing for simultaneous execution of a second task

Attentional Narrowing

• As arousal increases, attentional focus narrows
• Cue utilization theory
-Task relevant cues
-Task irrelevant cues
• Distractibility
• Attentional flexibility

When Athletes Are in the Zone

• Physical and mental preparation are necessary for a great performance
• Describing a peak performance as simply being in the “zone”, as if there is a separation of the mind from the body diminishes the immense preparation that goes into training to become an elite athlete

Measuring Attentional Focus

• Behavioral Assessment
• Physiological indicators
• Written Self-Report Instruments

Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS)

- Width of Attention
•Broad <———> Narrow
-Direction of Attention
•Internal <——-> External

Attentional Control Training

• Learn to gate out irrelevant information
• Learn to control arousal and emotions

Thought Stopping and Centering

• Displace negative thought with a positive thought
• Center attention internally while making minor adjustments in arousal
• Focus attention on a task-relevant cue
• Execute the sport skill

Goal Setting in Sport

• Goals help people go to another level that they didn’t know was possible
• Goal is only a goal if you own it but not everyone is comfortable about speaking up so they don’t own it

Basic Types of Goals

• Outcome goals
• Performance goals
• Process goals

Effectiveness of Goal Types

• Used in isolation, outcome goals are the least effective, but when used in conjunction with performance and process goals, they are helpful
• Research supports a multiple goal setting strategy
• Athletes must understand differences and use all 3 effectively

Why Goal Setting is Effective

• Directed Attention
• Effort Mobilization
• Persistence
• Development of New Learning Strategies

Principles of Effective Goal Setting

• Make goals specific, measurable and observable
• Clearly identify time constraints
• Use moderately difficult goals
• Write goals down and monitor them
• Use mix of process, performance and outcome goals
• Use short and long-range goals
• Set team and individual performance goals
• Make sure goals are internalized by athlete
• Consider personality and individual differences in goal setting

Team Approach to Goal Setting

• The Planning Phase
• The Meeting Phase
• The Evaluation Phase

Goal Setting Pitfalls

• Poorly written goal statements
• Failure to devise a goal-attainment strategy
• Failure to follow goal-attainment strategy
• Failure to monitor performance process
• Discouragement (goals too difficult, too many, use of outcome goals)

Peak Performance

• Beyond ordinary levels of play
• It all comes together - physically and mentally
• An athlete’s personal best
• It is a consequence of both physical and mental factors
• Varies from athlete to athlete
• Most likely to occur when skills level matches demands

How the Mind Works with the Body to Produce Performance

-40-90% of success in sports is due to mental factors
• skill level, mental aspects
-Can train the ideal body/mind state that underlies peak performance
• Doesn’t always work

Psychological Characteristics Associated with Peak Performance

• Loss of fear
• Total immersion in the activity
• Narrow focus of attention on the present
• Feeling in complete control
• Time/space disorientation (usually slowed down)
• Feeling performance was automatic and effortless
• Control over emotion, thoughts and arousal
• Highly self-confident
• Physically and mentally relaxed
• Highly energized
• Team peak performance comes after practice period of being externally (and internally) reinforced

Flow

• The state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter”
(Basketball - call a timeout when opponent is on a roll to break flow)
• Flow may be the psychological process underlying peak performance
• Epitome of intrinsic motivation
• Expresses a sense of seemingly effortless and intrinsic joyful moments
• Experienced when you are engaged in an interesting activity for its own sake and no other external purpose

Dimensions of Flow

1. Situation challenge matches skills
2. Awareness and action merge
3. Clear goals
4. Feedback
5. Total concentration on task at hand
6. Complete control without actively attempting to be in control
7. No self-conscious or self-evolution
8. Time seems to speed up or slow down
9. Enjoyable - participation its own reward

What Facilitates Flow

• Appropriate focus
• Mental and physical prep
• Arousal
• Positive thoughts
• Positive emotions
• Confidence
• Positive feedback
• Good unity and team play
• Optimal environmental and situational conditions
• Positive competitive affect (during contest)

What Disrupts Flow

• Inappropriate focus
• Unmotivated
• Disconnected
• Negative thoughts
• Negative emotions
• Unconfident
• Negative feedback
• Poor team play

Effects of Flow

“Athletes who believe in their capabilities are probably more likely to experience a balance between challenge and skills, even when the challenge of a specific sport competition is relatively high”

Mindfulness

• Nonjudgmental focus of one’s attention on the experience that occurs in the present moment
• This approach encourages the acceptance of, and participation with, unwanted thoughts
• Linked to flow
• Associated with task relevant attention, loss of self-confidence, and a sense of control and peak performance
• In the moment

Individualized Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF)

-Attempting to identify emotional patterns (positive and negative) associated with individual athlete’s successful performances
-4 groups of emotional states
• Performance-enhancing positive emotions
• Performance-enhancing negative emotions
• Performance-impairing positive emotions
• Performance-impairing negative emotions
-Athletes assess and identify emotions related to successful and unsuccessful performances
-Different athletes may include different emotions
-There are a range of optimal and dysfunctional emotions

Successful Psychological Skills in Successful Elite Athletes

• High self-confidence
• Total commitment
• Strong performance focus
• Ability to cope well with distractions
• Good attention-focusing and refocusing skills
• Ability to rebound from mistakes
• Positive attitude
• High personal standards
• Well-developed pre-competition and competitive plans
• Ability to control emotions
• A view of anxiety as beneficial
• Use of performance goals
• Use of imagery

Mental Toughness

-An unshakable belief that one can achieve his/her goals regardless of obstacles or setbacks
• Belief + focus
-FOCUS: Prioritize long-term sport goal over all other life goals
-UNFOCUS: Ability to switch off this focus to maintain balance in their lives

Characteristics of Mental Toughness

• An “unshakable belief” (knowing you can do anything you set your mind to)
• Stay focused
• Regulate performance (increase effort)
• Cope well with pressure
• Are aware of, and control, their thoughts and feelings
• Control the environment (are not affected by things out of their control)

Mental Toughness Pyramid

See notes

How Others Facilitate Peak Performance

-Others = teammates, coaches, family members, and administrators
• High team cohesion
• Positive/strong team leader
• Committed coaches
• Clear coach performance plans
• Emotional and social support from friends/family
• Team management

How Others Hinder Peak Performance

• Lacking trust/confidence in teammates
• Poor coach-athlete communication
• Negative attitude toward coach
• Coach can’t deal with crisis
• Unrealistic expectations from coach
• Over coaching/excessive interactions
• Coach’s inability to “keep it simple”

Limitation of Research Findings

• Descriptive and correlational design
• Connections are certainly relational, but can’t assure cause & effect relation

Team Cohesion

• A dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of goals and objectives.
• Relationships over season on and off team
(Military is the best example of team cohesion -Men work best in groups, women work best in small groups)

Types of Team Cohesion

Task Cohesion
• Degree to which members of a team work together to achieve a specific and identifiable goal
Social Cohesion
• Degree to which members of a team like each other and enjoy personal satisfaction from being members of the team

Two Basic Approaches to Measuring Cohesion

• Indirect measurement approach
• Direct measurement approach

Conceptual Model of Team Cohesion

Athlete’s perception of a team
• Group integration
• Individual Attraction
Group Orientation
• Social
• Task

Measurement of Team Cohesion

• Sport Cohesion Questionnaire
• Team Cohesion Questionnaire
• Sport Cohesion Instrument
• Group Environment Questionnaire (see notes)
• Team Psychology Questionnaire

Determinants of Team Cohesion

• Personal factors
• Team Factors
• Leadership Factors
• Environmental Factors
• Time in/out of season
• Personality disorder - person cant handle rejection
• Narcissist - want others to change, not them

Consequences of Team Cohesion

• Group Outcomes
• Individual Outcomes
• Athletic Performance
• Direction of Causality
• Improving Group Self-Efficacy
• Predicting Future Participation
• Homogeneity of Team Cohesion
• Moderator of Disruptive Effects
• Psychological Momentum

Direction of Causality for Performance/Cohesion

Bidirectional

team cohesion —> team performance <—

Developing Team Cohesion

• Team cohesion as a process
• Team building
• Specific interventions designed to enhance team cohesion
• Cohesion changes over the course of season and relationships over 4 years

Classification Scheme for Leadership Theories

• Universal Trait Theories
• Universal Behavior Theories
• Specific Situation Trait Theories
• Specific Situation Behavioral Theories

Universal Trait Theories

• “I think there are people God put on this earth to be natural-born leaders and Gary is one of them”

Universal Behavior Theories

• Leadership behaviors can be learned, while personality traits cannot
• Universal behaviors of successful leaders:
-Consideration
-Initiating structure

Specific Situation Trait Theories

• Fiedler’s Contingency Model is the best example of this type of leadership theory
• Performance effectiveness is believed to be contingent on:
-Situation favorableness
-Personality of the leader

Specific Situation Behavioral Theories

• Path-goal Theory
• Life Cycle Theory
• Functional Model of Leadership
• Chelladurai’s Multidimensional Model
• Smoll & Smith’s Leadership Behavior Model

Chelladurai’s Multidimensional Sport Model of Leadership

-Leadership effectiveness is believed to be a function of congruence between 3 different perspectives of leadership behavior:
• Prescribed Leader Behavior
• Actual Leader Behavior
• Preferred Leader Behavior

Smoll and Smith’s Sport Leadership Model

• central process of the model
coach’s behavior > player’s perception > player’s response

Coach-Athlete Compatability

-Characteristics of compatible relationship:
• Good communication
• Reward behavior present
-Characteristics of incompatible relationship
• Communication is lacking
• Lack of rewarding behavior

Assertiveness Training for Coaches

• Describe the situation to the athlete
• Tell how it affects the team
• Tell what you think should be done

Player Position, Leadership Opportunity, and Stacking

• The coach can develop leadership skills in young athletes by placing them in team positions requiring observability, visibility and task dependence
• Position on an athletic team should be determined on the basis of skill, physical attributes and athlete’s performance

Psychological Predictors of Athletic Injury

• Personality Factors
• History of Stressors
• Coping Resources
• Intervention

Stress and Injury Model

• An athlete’s perceived inability to respond to the demands of a potentially stressful athletic situation results in the stress response
• The stress response in turn gives rise to increased muscle tension, narrowing of the visual field, and attentional distractibility

Personal Factors and Athletic Injury

• Personal factors that might have an effect upon how the athlete responds to a stressful athletic situation include hardiness, locus of control, sense of coherence, competitive trait anxiety and intrinsic motivation

History of Stressors and Athletic Injury

• Life stress and daily habits
• Previous injury

Coping Resource and Athletic Injury

• Coping behaviors
• Social support
• Stress management
• Attentional strategies
• Medication

Integrated Model of Psychology Response to Injury

-Moderators to the response to injury
-Model background
• Personal factors
• Situational factors
-Psychology response to injury
• Cognitive Appraisal
• Emotional repsonse
-Rehabilitation and behavioral response to injury
• Adherence to injury rehabilitation
• Coping, social support and interventions
• Pain management

Factors Involved in Cognitive Appraisal

• Need to adjust performance goals
• Estimate of recovery time
• Evaluation of self-worth and confidence
• Appraisal of attributions
• Sense of loss
• Appraisal of coping skills

Factors Associated with Emotional Response

• Fear of the unknown
• Feelings of tension, anger and depression
• Frustration and boredom
• Positive/negative attitude
• Grief
• Emotional coping skills

Other Considerations of Athletic Injury

• Providing sport injury rehabilitation personnel with psychological expertise
• The impact of athletic injury upon retirement satisfaction
• Benefits associated with sustaining and recovering from an athletic injury

Some Banned Substances

-Anabolic-androgenic steroids
• Synthetic derivatives of testosterone that have both an anabolic effect as well as an androgenic effect
• Also called exogenous testosterone (externally derived) to be different from naturally occurring endogenous testosterone
(Women have testosterone but men have 40% more)
-Stimulants
-Depressants
-Other banned drugs
• Diuretics
• Hallucinogens
• Beta-Adrenergic Blockers

Androstenedione

• Food supplement that acts as a direct precursor hormone to endogenous testosterone

Biological Effects of Anabolic Steroid Use

• Increased body weight and mass
• Altered body composition
• Increased muscle size and strength
• Increased blood volume
• Increased number of red blood cells

Psychological Effects of Anabolic Steroid Use

• While extremely high levels of anabolic steroid use is linked to aggressive behavior, the cause-and-effect link between moderate use and deviant psychological behavior has not been established

Use of Stimulants by Athletes

• Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cocaine increase the rate and work capacity of the central nervous system, respiratory system and the heart
• The illegal and unethical use of stimulants may result in performance enhancement but not without some danger to the athlete

Use of Depressants by Athletes

• Depressants, such as barbiturates, sedative-hypnotics and alcohol, are designed to relieve tension, depression and anxiety
• Highly addictive
• Abuse may lead to serious health consequences due to damage to organs responsible for metabolizing them

Combating Drug Abuse in Sport

-Cognitive techniques
-Behavioral techniques
• Coaches shouldn’t create an atmosphere where athletes feel they need steroids to compete
• Clean team culture is bed way to prevent it

Stress

• Stage of alarm - alarm reaction
• Sympathetic nervous system goes into overdrive - fight or flight
• State of exhaustion then recovery or die
(Based on what environment does to you)
• Most stress is how we interpret our environment - perception of our ability to cope > perceived efficacy and expectancy - what you expect the outcome of the situation to be based on the resources available for you to cope

Differentiating Among Anxiety, Arousal and Stress

• Emotions and mood
• Selye’s concept of stress
• The stress process
situation > appraisal > stress response

Differentiating Between Emotions and Mood

• Lazarus identified 15 different emotions, anxiety is one of them
• Emotions are sudden reactions to a stimulation that could last for seconds, minutes or hours
• Moods are more diffuse and may last for days, weeks or months
• Affect is a general term used to refer to emotions and moods

Selye’s Concept of Stress

-the “nonspecific response of the body to any demand placed upon it
-Good and bad stress:
• Eustress
• Distress
-Stress and physiological arousal correlated

Stress Process

-Three parts of the Stress Process
• Environmental situation
• Appraisal of environmental situation
• The stress response
-Stress response occurs if coping skills perceived to be inadequate

Multidimensional Nature of Anxiety

-People have different set points of level of arousal and anxiety
-The higher the level of anxiety, the better the performance to a point
• Moderate level of anxiety is good
-Different sports require different levels of pre-game arousal and anxiety
-Mood state can effect arousal
• Vigor, concentration, attention
-Cognitive anxiety effects more basic neuromuscular system
-Everyone gets anxious - use it to your advantage
-Trait anxiety (personality disposition)
• Cognitive
• Somatic
-State anxiety (solution specific)
• Cognitive
• Somatic

Antecedents of Pre-Competitive State Anxiety

• Fear of performance failure
• Fear of negative social evaluation
• Fear of physical harm
• Situation ambiguity
• Disruption of well-learned routine

Trait Anxiety Inventories

• Spielberger’s Trait Anxiety Inventory (TAI)
• Sport Competition Anxiety (SCAT)
• Cognitive Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAQ)
• Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS)

State Anxiety Inventories

• Spielberger’s State Anxiety Inventory (TAI)
• Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI)
• Competitive State Anxiety Inventory - 2 (CSAI-2)
• Activation-Deactivation Checklist (AD-ACL)

Time-to-Event Nature of Precompetitive Anxiety

• Cognitive Anxiety: Starts high and remains high as event approaches. Fluctuates throughout the contest as probability of success changes
• Somatic Anxiety: Starts low but increases rapidly as even approaches. Dissipates rapidly once event begins

The Relationship Between Arousal and Performance

-Inverted-U Theory
• Cue Utilization Theory
• Signal Detection Theory
• Information Processing Theory
-Drive Theory

Drive Theory and Performance

-Performance = Arousal x Skill level
-Basic Tenets (principles)
• High arousal elicits dominant response
• Early in learning the dominant response is the incorrect response
• Late in learning the dominant response is the correct response

Marten’s Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

• A negative linear relationship exists between cognitive state anxiety and athletic performance
• An inverted-U relationship exists between somatic anxiety and performance

Calculating Intra-individualized or Ipsative Z-Scores

• An athlete’s repeated responses are converted into z-scores using the athlete’s mean and standard deviation
• This process is completed for each athlete under investigation
• Each athlete’s individualized scores as opposed to raw scores are entered into an analysis

Fazey and Hardy’s Catastrophe Theory

• When faced with debilitating anxiety, athletes do not experience small incremental decreases in performance; suffer large catastrophic decrements
• Performance is hypothesized to be affected by the interaction between physiological arousal and cognitive anxiety

Hanin’s Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Theory

• A narrow bracket or zone is placed around an athlete’s optimal pre-competitive level of anxiety
• The athlete should perform best when his/her pre-start state anxiety is within the predetermined Individual zone of optimal functioning

Jones’ Directionality Theory Relative to State Anxiety

• A raw score on an anxiety inventory only measures the intensity dimension of anxiety (high or low)
• Of greater importance is the direction dimension, or how the athlete perceives anxiety in terms of it facilitating or inhibiting performance

Apter’s Reversal Theory

• Telic-dominant individuals interpret high anxiety/arousal situations as being undesirable and to be avoided.
• Paratelic-dominant individuals interpret high anxiety/arousal situations as being desirable and exciting.
• A psychological reversal can change the way an athlete perceives high stress situations.
• Sport specific - example of war jet fighter vs ground force

iceberg profile

vigor ratings for more successful athletes typically are above the population mean, whereas their ratings for tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion are below the population means

achievement motivation

a person’s efforts to master a task, achieve excellence, persist in the face of failure, and experience pride in accomplishments

attribution theory

how people perceive their successes and failures will result in difference in expectancy of future success/failures, pride/shame and motivation

high achievers

seek out challenges in each situation, enjoy competing against equal ability and embrace the personal challenge

low achievers

avoid challenges and opt for easy tasks or unrealistically hard tasks

motivation

the direction and intensity of one’s effort

3 types of communication

interpersonal, non-verbal, intrapersonal

% of non-verbal communication

50-70%

7 laws of John Wooden

explanation
demonstration
imitation
repetition
repetition
repetition
repetition

3 phases of Psychological Skills Training

education-increase awareness, acquisition- tailor to individuals, practice- keep a log/record

self-regulation consists of

problem identification, execution, generalization

social cognitive theory

presence of others helps performance on well-learned/simple skills and inhibits/lessens performance on unlearned or complex tasks

cognitive state anxiety

moment-to-moment changes in feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension associated with arousal of the body

relationship between thoughts and performance

thoughts & images > feelings & emotions > energy & physiology > behavior & performance

profile of mood states

anxiety, depression, fatigue, anger, vigor, confusion

social-psychological approach

person-by-situation perspective that considers a variety of both personal and situational factors

sport & exercise psychology

scientific study of the behaviors of people engaged in sport and exercise activities and the application of the knowledge gained

feedback sandwich

positive-specific statement
positive and constructive feedback
encouraging remark

informational feedback

provides information about errors and desired results/performance, such as the specific behaviors that should be performed, levels of proficiency to be achieved, and performer’s current level of proficiency

reinforcement feedback

provides information that increases the likelihood a performer will repeat a desired response

motivational feedback

provides information about progress towards a goal and is most useful when tasks are boring, repetitive, and/or long in duration

achievement goal theory

predicts that one’s goal-orientation (outcome, task, social) interacts with their perceived ability which then helps predict achievement behavior

cognitive-behavioral approach

assumes that behavior is determined by both the environment and cognition, with thoughts and interpretation playing an especially important role

role-related behavior

most superficial and therefore most easily changed part of a personality structure

Coleman Griffith

father of American sport psychology

need achievement theory

interactionalist approach; predicting situations in which there is a 50-50 chance of success; most important contribution of need achievement theory is its task performance and performance predictions

competence motivation theory

motivation is indirectly influenced by such things as feelings of self-worth and perceptions of control; people are motivated to feel worthy or competent

Steiner’s Model

actual productivity of a team does not automatically match its potential productivity

scientifically derived knowledge (Scientific Method)

is a dynamic process of learning about the world through filtering of knowledge that is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical

3 personality levels

psychological core, typical responses, role-related behavior

objective 1 of sports psychology

to understand the effect of psychological factors on motor performance

objective 2 of sports psychology

to understand the effect of physical activity participation on psychological development and well-being

mental toughness

an athlete’s ability to focus, rebound from failure, cope with pressure, and persist in the face of adversity; remain relatively uneffected by competition or adversity

psychological skills training

the systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater self-satisfaction

self-regulation

ability to work toward one’s short- and long-term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors

arousal

blend of psychological and physiological activity in a person, and it refers to the intensity of dimensions of motivation at a particular moment

anxiety

negative emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, and apprehension and associated with activation or arousal of the body

perceived control

an important component of managing state anxiety and is the degree to which one believes one has the resources and ability to meet challenges

drive theory

an individual’s arousal or state anxiety increases, performance increases; predicts that the presence of others helps performance on well-learned/simple skills and inhibits or lessens performance on unlearned or complex skills

inverted u-hypothesis

as arousal increases, so does performance up to an optimal point, at which point further increases in arousal will show a decrease in performance

Herbert Benson

chief researcher of the relaxation response as a cognitive anxiety reduction technique

coping

process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources

excess anxiety can produce

inappropriate muscle tension, inappropriate thoughts and somatic (physiological) reactions

bioinformational theory

images have two propositions called response and stimulus propositions

5 key steps of designing a PST program

discuss approach
assess mental skills
determine methods
design procedure
evaluate program

SMARTS Goals

specific
measurable
action-oriented
realistic
time-bound
self-determined

maladaptive perfectionism

excessive exercise, poor performance, athlete burnout

adaptive perfectionism

better learning and performance more adaptive goals patterns

Tip #1

know your participants: understand WHY people participate in sport-physical activity

Tip #2

focus on what YOU control: take responsibility for that which is in your control and direct influence

Tip #3

take responsibility: know your role…how does your action/inaction influence others’ motivation

Tip #4

modify maladaptive motivation: emphasize task and mastery goals through: your feedback, your instructions, and participant’s goal setting

state anxiety

specific; moment-to-moment changes in anxiety levels: cognitive state anxiety and somatic

trait anxiety

typical; acquired behavioral tendency or disposition that influences behavior

catastrophe theory

physiological arousal is related to performance in an inverted-U , but only when athlete has low cognitive state anxiety; if cognitive anxiety is too high, then at some point will reach a threshold and experience a rapid decline- a catastrophe!

reversal theory

how arousal affects performance depends on an individual’s interpretation of his or her arousal level; performers can shift their interpretations of arousal from moment-to-moment

group

2+ people who interact with, and exert mutual influence on, each other; interaction/interdependence; common objectives/goals; common characteristics

team

collective identity; distinctive roles; structured modes of communication; established norms

linear perspective (how groups develop)

forming: get to know each other, “sizing up”
storming: rebel, resist leadership
norming: conflicts are resolved
performing: members work together to achieve team goals

cyclical perspective (how groups develop)

experiencing birth, growth and death; assumption that as the group develops, it psychologically prepares for its own break-up

pendular perspective

emphasizes the shifts that occur in interpersonal relationships during the growth & development of groups

formal roles

dictated by the nature and structure of the team/sport

informal roles

evolve from the group’s dynamics or interactions among group members

Ringelmann Effect

phenomenon when individual performances decrease as the number of people in a group increases

informational feedback

provides info about errors and desired results/performance; information about the specific behaviors that should be performed, levels of proficiency to be achieved, and performer’s current level of proficiency

reinforcement feedback

provides info that increases the likelihood a performer will repeat a desired response; negative- removal of an unpleasant stimulus that results in the increase of a behavior; positive- a pleasant stimulus that increases a behavior

leadership

the process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goals

trait approach (leadership)

successful leaders have certain personality characteristics that make it likely they will be leaders no matter the situation

behavioral approach

anyone can become an effective leader by simply learning the behaviors of other effective leaders

situational approach

effectiveness of an individual’s leadership style stems from matching the style to the situation

interactional approach

effectiveness of an individual’s leadership style stems from matching the style to the situation

sending messages effectively

Be direct, complete and specific
Be clear and consistent
Focus on one thing at a time
Reinforce with repetition
Look for feedback that message was accurately interpreted

breakdowns in communication

Breakdowns occur because a message is not sent effectively, not received effectively, or is misinterpreted.
-Lack of trust between persons
-Problem with transmission
-Assume the problem is “the other guy”

ultimate goal of PST: self-regulation

self-regulation is the ability to work toward one’s short- and long-term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one’s thought, feelings and behaviors

stages of self-regulation

identify problem, commitment, execution, environmental management, generalization

problem identification

identify a problem, determine change is possible, take responsibility for solution

execution

need to self-evaluate, self-monitor, develop proper expectancies, self-reinforce, sustain effort

environmental management

plan and derive strategies to manage social and physical environment that affects the individual

stress response

sympathetic nervous system activation; alarm reaction (fight or flight)

optimal stress

point where eustress and distress are intense enough to motivate and physically prepare us to perform optimally

how arousal affects performance

increases in arousal and state anxiety cause increases in muscle tension; increase in arousal and state anxiety decreases effectiveness of attention, concentration, and visual search patters

somatic anxiety reduction techniques

progressive muscle relaxation: maximally contract one specific muscle group at a time
breath control: breathing patterns differ according to physical-emotional state

biofeedback

physically oriented technique specifically designed to teach people to control physiological and autonomic responses

cognitive anxiety reduction techniques

relaxation response: applies basic elements of meditation and alters the state of mind; autogenic training: series of exercises designed to produce sensations, specifically warmth and heaviness

multimodal anxiety reduction

alleviate both cognitive and somatic anxiety while providing systematic strategies for rehearsal of coping procedures under simulated stressful conditions

categories of coping

problem-focused: efforts to manage the problem; emotion-focused coping: regulating the emotional responses

imagery

creating or recreating an event or skills in our mind based on: personal experience, observations of others

psychoneuromuscular theory

imagery programs muscles for action & facilitates the learning of motor skills: imagined events innervate the muscles as physical practice of the movement does

symbolic learning theory

imagery helps us understand movement patterns: functions as a coding system to help people understand and acquire movement patterns

bioinformational theory

images are made of stimulus and response propositions

psychological skills hypothesis

imagery develops and refines mental skills and reduces anxiety

imagery in sports

Acquire
Build confidence
Control emotional responses
Decision making, solve problems
Enhance motivation
Improve concentration

key imagery components

vividness: sights, sounds, smells, tastes, feeling, emotions/moods/thoughts; controllability: ability to be in command of one’s images, ability to distinguish when and where to use imagery

imagery perspective

internal perspective: seeing the execution of a skill from your own vantage point; external perspective: seeing yourself from the perspective of an outside observer

optimal level of self-confidence

so convinced that you can achieve your goals that you will strive hard to do so; inverted-U relationship between self-confidence and performance

types of sport confidence

physical: belief in your physical abilities; cognitive: belief in your mental abilities; resilience: belief in your ability to maintain after exceptional or poor performances

sources of sport self-confidence

achievement- mastery, demonstration of ability; self-regulation- physical/mental preparation, physical self-presentation; social climate- social support, coaches’ leadership, vicarious experience, environmental comfort, situational favorableness

coaching expectations & the self-fulfilling prophecy

higher expectations leads to different coaching behaviors (individualized coaching)

self-efficacy

perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully; adapted to explain behavior in several disciplines of psychology

6 sources of self-efficacy

performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, imaginal experience, psychological states, emotional states

goal setting

having the courage to develop a vision, the creativity to establish a plan, and the guts to commit to the journey

direct mechanistic view

where to: goals produce motivation; turn in 4 miles: goals direct attention; arrive at (time): goals increase effort & persistence; recalculating: goals promote new strategies

effectiveness of Goal Setting

more than 90% of general psychology studies show that GS has a consistent and powerful effect on behavior

outcome goals

focus on a competitive result of an event

performance goals

focus on achieving standards of performance or personal objectives

process goals

focus on the actions one must do during performance to perform well

design a goal setting system

preparation and planning, education and acquisition, implementation Goal follow-up and evaluation

preparation and planning

assess abilities and needs, set goals in diverse areas, consider individual differences, plan goal achievement strategies

education & acquisition

impart goal setting information & guiding principles: focus on one goal at a time, incorporate all angles of goals, set positive goals, record goals, record goals, develop goal achievement strategies , follow the SMARTS principle

attention= focus= concentration

mental effort placed on sensory events or thoughts; be mentally relaxed with a high degree of focus and control

attentional demands in sport

selective attention: focusing on relevant cues; maintaining attention: appropriate attention over time; situation awareness: sizing up a situation; shifting attention: switch focus between cues

attentional selectivity

focusing on relevant cues, while ignoring or screening out others; on WHAT are you focusing?

attentional capacity

control processing: movements are consciously controlled; automatic processing: movements are more autonomic; HOW MUCH information can be processed?

attentional alertness

increases in arousal narrow the attentional field because of a systematic reduction in the range of cue utilization, known as “perceptual narrowing”; decreases in arousal can cause too broad/lack of focus

nideffer’s attentional styles

more complex and rapidly changing situations demand more externally focused attention (get out of the mind); increased needs for analysis and planning require more internally focused attention (get into the mind)

nideffer’s attentional styles (cont.)

broad-external: environmental assessment; broad-internal: analytical athlete; narrow-external: single environmental cue; narrow-internal:limbs in space

nideffer’s attentional errors

broad-external: forget to think/stimulus overload; broad-internal: overanalysis/thinks about too many things at once; narrow-external: underinclusion/cannot adjust to changing environment; narrow-internal: chokers/focus on self-defeating thoughts

using effective cue words

instructional: directs attention to the present & process; motivational: directs attention to the positive

why exercise for psychological well-being?

25% of people will experience anxiety/20% depression; by 2020 depression will be 2nd to cardiovascular disease as leading cause of death

why exercise for psychological well-being? (2)

mental health problems account for 30% of total days in hospital; 10% total medical costs; exercise is related to decreases in anxiety and depression as well as increases in feelings of general well-being

effects of exercise

acute effects: immediate and possibly temporary effects arising from a single bout of exercise; chronic effects: long-term effect, focused on changes over time

reducing depression with exercise

exercise can be as effective as medication alone, as well as a combination of the two; sport participation; role of exercise frequency

enhancing mood with exercise

mood- a state of emotional or effective arousal of varying, impermanent duration; mood regulation

how injuries happen

physical factors (muscle imbalances, high-speed collisions, overtraining, physical fatigue) are the primary causes of exercise and sport injuries; psychological factors have been found to play a role

factors that predispose athletes to injury

personality, history of stressors, coping resources

stress-injury relationship

attention disruption; increased muscle tension; maladaptive attitudes

psychological reactions to injury

denial > anger > bargaining > depression > acceptance

3 general categories of responses to injury

injury relevant information processing; emotional upheaval and reactive behavior; positive outlook and coping

psychology of recovery

psychological factors affect adherence to treatment protocols; self-motivation: was significant predictor of home exercise compliance; goal setting & positive self-talk: were positively related to home rehabilitation exercise completion and program adherence

periodized training

deliberate strategy of exposing athletes to high-volume and high-intensity training loads that are followed by a lower training load

overtraining

a short cycle of training during which athletes expose themselves to excessive training loads that are near maximum capacity

staleness

athlete has difficulty maintaining standard training regimens and can no longer achieve previous performance results

burnout

physical, emotional, and social withdrawal from a formerly enjoyable sport activity

cognitive-affective stress model

burnout is a process involving physiological, psychological, and behavioral components that progress in predictable stages; components: situational demands, cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, behavioral responses

unidimensional identity development and external control model

burnout occurs because the structure of highly competitive sport

commitment and entrapment theory

burnout is explained within the context of sport commitment; burnout occurs when athletes become entrapped in sport and lose motivation but continue to participate

self-determination theory

people have 3 basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. those who do not have these basic needs met will be more prone to burnout

common symptoms of overtraining

physical fatigue, mental exhaustion, sleep disturbances, mood changes

common symptoms of burnout

loss of interest, lack of desire to play, physical and mental exhaustion, lack of caring, depression, increased anxiety

benefits in youth sports

developing of social competence: the ability to get along with family, adults, coaches, teachers, kids; self-esteem: the level in which a person believes him/herself to be important, successful, worthy and capable

why children discontinue participation in sport

peak participation occurs between the ages of 10 and 13; sport-specific dropouts: withdraw from a particular program, but enter into other sports; sport-general dropouts: withdraw from all sport participation

morality in sport

fair play, good sporting behavior, character

fair play

allows all participants to have an equitable chance to pursue victory in competitive sport; understand and adhere to formal rules and the spirit of cooperation and unwritten rules of play necessary to ensure fair competition

good sporting behavior

involves an intense striving to succeed, tempered by commitment to the play spirit such that ethical standards will take precedence over strategic gain when the two conflict; good sporting behaviors must be specifically identified based upon: type of sport, level of play, age of participant

character

refers to an array of characteristics that can be developed in sport; comprises 4 interrelated virtues: fair play, good sporting behavior, compassion, integrity

social learning approach

positive sporting attitudes and behaviors deemed appropriate by society are learned through: modeling/observation, reinforcement, social comparison

structural-development approach

moral reasoning, moral development, moral behavior

social-psychological approach

takes advantage of what has been learned through both the social learning and structural-developmental approaches; must consider the personal elements in the structural-developmental approach + a wide range of social factors that go beyond reinforcement, modeling and social comparison elements of the social learning approach

strategies for enhancing character development

define: good sporting behavior; reinforce and encourage: good sporting behavior; model: appropriate behaviors; explain: why certain behaviors are appropriate

strategies for enhancing character development (cont.)

discuss: moral dilemmas and choices; teach: cooperative learning strategies; create: task-oriented motivational climate; transfer: power from leaders to participants

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